Lesser of two evils principle¶

The lesser of two evils principle, also referred to as the lesser evil principle and lesser-evilism, is the ethical principle that, when faced with selecting from two immoral options, the less immoral one should be chosen.

Version: v1 · 2026-09-28 · History
Domain-specific #: 10373
Domain group: Humanities
Origin domain: Philosophy
Subdomains: Ethics, Moral Reasoning → Philosophy

Core Idea¶

Lesser of two evils principle is treated here as the recurring moral reasoning identity summarized by this source-grounded definition: The lesser of two evils principle, also referred to as the lesser evil principle and lesser-evilism, is the ethical principle that, when faced with selecting from two immoral options, the less immoral one should be chosen.

The lesser of two evils principle, also referred to as the lesser evil principle and lesser-evilism, is the ethical principle that, when faced with selecting from two immoral options, the less immoral one should be chosen. The principle is most often invoked in reference to lesser evil voting, a binary political choice under systems that make it impossible to express a sincere preference for one's favorite. In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle writes: "For the lesser evil can be seen in comparison with the greater evil as a good, since this lesser evil is preferable to the greater one, and whatever preferable is good".

When limited to the two most likely candidates, "lesser evil" is the most likely "greater good", for the "common good", as Pope Francis has said. In elections between only two candidates where one is mildly unpopular and the other immensely unpopular, opponents of both candidates frequently advocate a vote for the mildly unpopular candidate. An equivalent English seafaring phrase is "Between a rock and a hard place".

For Lesser of two evils principle, the abstraction is narrower than the article's general subject matter: a positive case must preserve The lesser of two evils principle, also referred to as the lesser evil principle and lesser-evilism, is the ethical principle that, when faced with selecting from two immoral options, the less immoral one should be chosen. Retaining only the name, a familiar example, or a downstream effect is insufficient. The specialist roles and tests remain anchored in moral reasoning, which is why this identity is domain-specific rather than prime.

Structural Signature¶

Sig role-phrases:

Defining carrier — The modern formulation was popularized by Thomas à Kempis' devotional book The Imitation of Christ written in early 15^th century.
Constitutive relation — In the 2016 United States presidential election, both major candidates of the major parties — Hillary Clinton (D) and Donald Trump (R) — had disapproval ratings close to 60% by August 2016.
Operating condition — Erasmus recorded it as an ancient proverb in his Adagia, although the earliest known instance is in the Alexandreis, a 12^th-century Latin epic poem by Walter of Châtillon.
Recognition evidence — Accordingly, the lesser evil principle should be applied to two front-runners among many choices, after eliminating from consideration "minor party candidates (who) can be spoilers in elections by taking away enough votes from a major party candidate to influence the outcome without winning.".
Admissible variation — In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle writes: "For the lesser evil can be seen in comparison with the greater evil as a good, since this lesser evil is preferable to the greater one, and whatever preferable is good".
Characteristic consequence — Hannah Arendt argued that "Those who choose the lesser evil forget very quickly that they chose evil".
Failure boundary — In contrast Seyla Benhabib argues that politics would not exist without the necessity to choose between a greater and a lesser evil.

What It Is Not¶

Not the whole field of moral reasoning. The node requires the specific identity stated by The lesser of two evils principle, also referred to as the lesser evil principle and lesser-evilism, is the ethical principle that, when faced with selecting from two immoral options, the less immoral one should be chosen.
Not an over-broad reading. In contrast Seyla Benhabib argues that politics would not exist without the necessity to choose between a greater and a lesser evil.
Not an over-broad reading. Rosen stated: "Beginning with the 1968 presidential election, I often have heard from liberals that they could not vote for the lesser of two evils.
Not an over-broad reading. Some said they would not vote; some said they would vote for a third-party candidate.
Not automatically Clifford's Principle. Retrieval proximity does not establish equivalence; the two identities must be compared by carrier, operation, and failure boundary.

Scope of Application¶

Lesser of two evils principle applies literally inside moral reasoning wherever the source-defined carrier and relation can be established. Its documented habitats include:

In modern elections. In 2012, Huffington Post columnist Sanford Jay Rosen stated that refusal to vote for the lesser of two evils became common practice for left-leaning voters in the United States due to their overwhelming disapproval of the United States government's support for the Vietnam War.
Origin. In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle writes: "For the lesser evil can be seen in comparison with the greater evil as a good, since this lesser evil is preferable to the greater one, and whatever preferable is good".
Origin. The modern formulation was popularized by Thomas à Kempis' devotional book The Imitation of Christ written in early 15^th century.
In modern elections. Hannah Arendt argued that "Those who choose the lesser evil forget very quickly that they chose evil".
In modern elections. In contrast Seyla Benhabib argues that politics would not exist without the necessity to choose between a greater and a lesser evil.
In modern elections. When limited to the two most likely candidates, "lesser evil" is the most likely "greater good", for the "common good", as Pope Francis has said.

Outside moral reasoning, the name should be retained only when these same operational conditions survive; otherwise the comparison belongs to the broader parent Pattern or should be marked as analogy.

Clarity¶

A clear use of Lesser of two evils principle names the carrier, the operative relation, and the conditions under which the source treats the identity as present. The minimal definition is The lesser of two evils principle, also referred to as the lesser evil principle and lesser-evilism, is the ethical principle that, when faced with selecting from two immoral options, the less immoral one should be chosen. The strongest recognition evidence in the frozen account is: Accordingly, the lesser evil principle should be applied to two front-runners among many choices, after eliminating from consideration "minor party candidates (who) can be spoilers in elections by taking away enough votes from a major party candidate to influence the outcome without winning.". A report should distinguish that evidence from a proxy, consequence, or common implementation. It should also state the qualification In contrast Seyla Benhabib argues that politics would not exist without the necessity to choose between a greater and a lesser evil. so that a reader can reproduce the classification rather than infer it from topical resemblance.

Manages Complexity¶

Lesser of two evils principle compresses multiple moral reasoning details into a stable diagnostic relation. The source shows both the central mechanism—in the 2016 United States presidential election, both major candidates of the major parties — Hillary Clinton (D) and Donald Trump (R) — had disapproval ratings close to 60% by August 2016.—and the practical consequence—hannah Arendt argued that "Those who choose the lesser evil forget very quickly that they chose evil". This compression makes cases comparable while leaving parameters, conventions, exceptions, and evidential quality explicit. It is lossy by design: local history and implementation details may be omitted only when they do not alter the defining relation.

Abstract Reasoning¶

Type the carrier. Identify the moral reasoning entities to which the claim applies.
State the relation. Use the source-grounded identity: The lesser of two evils principle, also referred to as the lesser evil principle and lesser-evilism, is the ethical principle that, when faced with selecting from two immoral options, the less immoral one should be chosen.
Check operation and conditions. Erasmus recorded it as an ancient proverb in his Adagia, although the earliest known instance is in the Alexandreis, a 12^th-century Latin epic poem by Walter of Châtillon.
Demand recognition evidence. Accordingly, the lesser evil principle should be applied to two front-runners among many choices, after eliminating from consideration "minor party candidates (who) can be spoilers in elections by taking away enough votes from a major party candidate to influence the outcome without winning.".
Test variation. Change an implementation or setting while preserving in Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle writes: "For the lesser evil can be seen in comparison with the greater evil as a good, since this lesser evil is preferable to the greater one, and whatever preferable is good".
Run the collapse test. Remove the defining operation; if the label still seems equally apt, only a topic or correlate was retained.
Reduce cautiously. When the specialist conditions cannot be carried, route the residual comparison to Pattern.

Knowledge Transfer¶

Within the home domain. Knowledge about Lesser of two evils principle transfers literally when a new case preserves the same carrier type, relation, and recognition test. In 2012, Huffington Post columnist Sanford Jay Rosen stated that refusal to vote for the lesser of two evils became common practice for left-leaning voters in the United States due to their overwhelming disapproval of the United States government's support for the Vietnam War. In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle writes: "For the lesser evil can be seen in comparison with the greater evil as a good, since this lesser evil is preferable to the greater one, and whatever preferable is good".

Beyond the home domain. No canonical parent is asserted for Lesser of two evils principle. An outside case receives the specialist name only when the same typed roles and rejection conditions can be filled literally; otherwise the comparison remains an analogy pending later graph densification.

Examples¶

Canonical¶

In his DarkHorse podcast, Bret Weinstein describes his Unity 2020 proposal for the 2020 presidential election as an option that, in case of failure, would not asymmetrically weaken voters' second-best choice on a single political side, thereby avoiding the lesser evil paradox. This case is canonical because it supplies a concrete carrier and lets the defining relation be checked rather than merely named.

Mapped back: carrier → the entities in the documented case; operation → The lesser of two evils principle, also referred to as the lesser evil principle and lesser-evilism, is the ethical principle that, when faced with selecting from two immoral options, the less immoral one should be chosen; recognition evidence → Accordingly, the lesser evil principle should be applied to two front-runners among many choices, after eliminating from consideration "minor party candidates (who) can be spoilers in elections by taking away enough votes from a major party candidate to influence the outcome without winning."

Applied / In Practice¶

For example, in the second round of the 2002 French presidential election graffiti in Paris told people to "vote for the crook, not the fascist". The applied case shows how the identity is used under a second setting or qualification while keeping the same operative relation.

Mapped back: changed setting → In modern elections; invariant → The lesser of two evils principle, also referred to as the lesser evil principle and lesser-evilism, is the ethical principle that, when faced with selecting from two immoral options, the less immoral one should be chosen; boundary → the case exits the class when in contrast Seyla Benhabib argues that politics would not exist without the necessity to choose between a greater and a lesser evil

Structural Tensions¶

T1 — Stable identity versus admissible variation. In contrast Seyla Benhabib argues that politics would not exist without the necessity to choose between a greater and a lesser evil. The tension matters because emphasizing only one side either dissolves the identity or overstates what the evidence and domain conventions warrant.

Diagnostic: Which changes preserve the defining relation, and which replace it?

T2 — Recognition versus proxy. Rosen stated: "Beginning with the 1968 presidential election, I often have heard from liberals that they could not vote for the lesser of two evils. The tension matters because emphasizing only one side either dissolves the identity or overstates what the evidence and domain conventions warrant.

Diagnostic: Does the cited evidence establish the identity or only a correlated sign?

T3 — Definition versus implementation. Some said they would not vote; some said they would vote for a third-party candidate. The tension matters because emphasizing only one side either dissolves the identity or overstates what the evidence and domain conventions warrant.

Diagnostic: Is the observed implementation constitutive, optional, or merely common?

T4 — Scope versus overextension. In his DarkHorse podcast, Bret Weinstein describes his Unity 2020 proposal for the 2020 presidential election as an option that, in case of failure, would not asymmetrically weaken voters' second-best choice on a single political side, thereby avoiding the lesser evil paradox. The tension matters because emphasizing only one side either dissolves the identity or overstates what the evidence and domain conventions warrant.

Diagnostic: Can every claimed application fill the same typed roles without metaphor?

T5 — Transfer versus domain accent. The modern formulation was popularized by Thomas à Kempis' devotional book The Imitation of Christ written in early 15^th century. The tension matters because emphasizing only one side either dissolves the identity or overstates what the evidence and domain conventions warrant.

Diagnostic: Does the receiving case instantiate Lesser of two evils principle literally, co-instantiate Pattern, or only resemble it?

T6 — Autonomy versus reduction. In the 2016 United States presidential election, both major candidates of the major parties — Hillary Clinton (D) and Donald Trump (R) — had disapproval ratings close to 60% by August 2016. The tension matters because emphasizing only one side either dissolves the identity or overstates what the evidence and domain conventions warrant.

Diagnostic: What does Lesser of two evils principle distinguish that the broader parent Pattern leaves together?

Structural–Framed Character¶

Lesser of two evils principle is mixed or framed-leaning. Its structural side is the repeatable organization summarized by The lesser of two evils principle, also referred to as the lesser evil principle and lesser-evilism, is the ethical principle that, when faced with selecting from two immoral options, the less immoral one should be chosen. Its framed side is the moral reasoning vocabulary that fixes the carrier, evidence, exceptions, and admissible transformations.

Evaluative weight: the identity can be stated descriptively even when applications carry practical stakes. Human-practice dependence: the source-grounded carrier determines whether the relation exists independently or is constituted by a practice. Institutional origin: disciplinary conventions stabilize the name and test. Vocabulary portability: Erasmus recorded it as an ancient proverb in his Adagia, although the earliest known instance is in the Alexandreis, a 12^th-century Latin epic poem by Walter of Châtillon. Import versus recognition: literal transfer requires the same mechanism; shape alone is analogy.

Its portable skeleton is Pattern. Its character: a recurring specialist identity whose thin organization can be abstracted, while its operational meaning remains domain-bound.

Structural Core vs. Domain Accent¶

What is skeletal. The lesser of two evils principle, also referred to as the lesser evil principle and lesser-evilism, is the ethical principle that, when faced with selecting from two immoral options, the less immoral one should be chosen. The stable skeleton is the typed relation expressed in that definition and the entry's recognition and collapse tests. The source identifies these operative conditions: The modern formulation was popularized by Thomas à Kempis' devotional book The Imitation of Christ written in early 15^th century. In the 2016 United States presidential election, both major candidates of the major parties — Hillary Clinton (D) and Donald Trump (R) — had disapproval ratings close to 60% by August 2016. It further constrains recognition and variation through: Erasmus recorded it as an ancient proverb in his Adagia, although the earliest known instance is in the Alexandreis, a 12^th-century Latin epic poem by Walter of Châtillon. Accordingly, the lesser evil principle should be applied to two front-runners among many choices, after eliminating from consideration "minor party candidates (who) can be spoilers in elections by taking away enough votes from a major party candidate to influence the outcome without winning.".

What is domain-bound. moral reasoning supplies the operative entities, technical vocabulary, warrants, and exceptions that make Lesser of two evils principle literal. Its documented scope includes the condition that In 2012, Huffington Post columnist Sanford Jay Rosen stated that refusal to vote for the lesser of two evils became common practice for left-leaning voters in the United States due to their overwhelming disapproval of the United States government's support for the Vietnam War. Another bounded application condition is that In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle writes: "For the lesser evil can be seen in comparison with the greater evil as a good, since this lesser evil is preferable to the greater one, and whatever preferable is good". These are not decorative examples; they determine which carrier and evidence can fill the abstraction's roles.

Why no parent is asserted. Removing those specialist details does not currently yield one live catalog node that is a necessary genus for every instance. The entry is therefore approved as unparented rather than attached by topical resemblance. Its collapse evidence remains specific—In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle writes: "For the lesser evil can be seen in comparison with the greater evil as a good, since this lesser evil is preferable to the greater one, and whatever preferable is good".—and future graph densification may discover a defensible relation only if it preserves that boundary.

Approved unparented node. No current live node supplies a defensible necessary genus or structural prerequisite for Lesser of two evils principle. The reviewed identity is: The lesser of two evils principle, also referred to as the lesser evil principle and lesser-evilism, is the ethical principle that, when faced with selecting from two immoral options, the less immoral one should be chosen. The accelerated suggestion was declined because topical or lexical similarity does not establish hierarchy; the node is admitted without a parent pending later graph densification.
Related reasoning operations. Evidence, representation, comparison, classification, transformation, or evaluation may participate in particular cases, but participation does not make any one of them a necessary parent of every instance.

Neighborhood in Abstraction Space¶

Lesser of two evils principle sits in a sparse region of the domain-specific corpus (83^rd percentile for distinctiveness): few abstractions share its structure, so a faithful description tends to retrieve it precisely.

Family — Moral & Political Concepts (9 abstractions)

Nearest neighbors

Computed from structural-signature embeddings · 2026-10-08

Not to Be Confused With¶

Pattern. The parent omits the specialist differentia. Tell: Can the case establish The lesser of two evils principle, also referred to as the lesser evil principle and lesser-evilism, is the ethical principle that, when faced with selecting from two immoral options, the less immoral one should be chosen?
Clifford's Principle. The stringent ethics-of-belief norm that it is morally wrong for anyone to form or retain a belief on insufficient evidence. Tell: Which entry's carrier, operation, and failure condition are satisfied?
Moral particularism. Hold that sound moral judgment does not depend on applying a sufficient stock of invariant moral principles because a consideration's relevance or polarity can change with the other features of the particular case. Tell: Which entry's carrier, operation, and failure condition are satisfied?
Flipism. A satirical decision philosophy that delegates choices to a coin flip, originating in Carl Barks’s 1953 Donald Duck story. Tell: Which entry's carrier, operation, and failure condition are satisfied?
A measurement, proxy, or consequence. Those may provide evidence without being the identity. Tell: Would Lesser of two evils principle remain present if the detector or downstream effect changed?
A metaphorical analogue. A similar shape outside moral reasoning lacks the specialist mechanism. Tell: Do the native roles transfer literally, or only the parent Pattern?

References¶

Frozen Wikipedia discovery revision: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesser_of_two_evils_principle (revision 1360919645).
Preserved source candidate: https://books.google.com/books?id=Rol0ALf2AGoC&pg=PA22
Preserved source candidate: https://newpol.org/eight-point-brief-lev-lesser-evil-voting/
Preserved source candidate: https://newpol.org/about/
Preserved source candidate: https://books.google.com/books?id=mV_PVH9GVVsC&dq=%22Those+who+choose+the+lesser+evil+forget+very+quickly+that+they+chose+evil%22&pg=PA367
Preserved source candidate: https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crkdmdg78jgo
Preserved source candidate: https://www.msnbc.com/opinion/msnbc-opinion/pope-francis-kamala-harris-donald-trump-rcna171092
Preserved source candidate: https://wherepeteris.com/pope-francis-on-us-election-vote-for-the-lesser-evil/
Preserved source candidate: https://www.huffingtonpost.com/sanford-jay-rosen/obama-reelection_b_1913745.html

The frozen Wikipedia revision is discovery provenance. The retained source set was reviewed for identity, formal or operational relation, and scope. The encyclopedia's structural synthesis is bounded to those claims; a thin authority surface is recorded as a nonblocking source-strengthening repair rather than concealed.